A Well-written Essay

A Well-Written Essay on Constantine
Discuss the events which led to the conversion of Constantine, its nature and the impact of his treatment of the church on the church/state relationship which characterized the Middle Ages. Specifically, what role did the heresies play in the development of Constantine's control of the church and in the relationship between the church and state?

Constantine was the first Christian emperor. Like many Romans, he was a member of the sun cult. In 312 a.d., he was on his way to meet his rival for the throne in battle when he saw a sign

emblazoned on the sun with the words "in hoc signo vinces" (by this sign you shall conquer) written underneath. The sign was the symbol of a small cult within the empire, that of Christianity. It represented the first two greek letters in the name of Christ, the chi and the rho from christos. Constantine interpreted this sign to mean that if he fought under the banner of Christianity, he would win a victory. In 312 a.d. at the Battle of Milvian Bridge, his men displayed this symbol on their shields and defeated his rival for the throne. One year later, in 313 a.d., Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which granted toleration to the Christian faith and allowed Christians for the first time to practice their religion openly without fear of persecution. The Christian church was also granted special privileges and tax exemptions in the empire, and much of their confiscated property was returned. The edict thus gave Christianity preference over other faiths, although it did not make Christianity the official religion in the empire. Throughout his career, Constantine would interpret his vision and subsequent victory as a sign that his power as emperor was dependent on his protection of the Christian faith and church.
For this reason, Constantine did not tolerate heresy, which is the deliberate holding of a doctrine or dogma against official church beliefs. The Donatist heresy threatened to rupture the church soon after the Edict of Milan was passed. During Diocletian's persecutions of 303 a.d., Christians had been forced to give up their scriptures and to sacrifice in the cult of the Roman emperor. Those who gave up their scriptures were called traditores (those who have handed over); those who sacrificed were called lapsi (those who have fallen away). After the edict, many traditores and lapsi wanted to return to the church; some wanted to serve as priests and bishops. In North Africa, two competing churches arose over this controversy. Some maintained that lapsi and traditores should not be allowed to reenter the church -- they are known as the hard-liners and were led by Donatus and called the Donatists. Others preached forgiveness and mercy, and argued that lapsi and traditores should be readmitted to the church and allowed to serve as priests and bishops. These people were led by Caecilian, who was consecrated as Bishop in Carthage. However, the Donatists refused to accept his consecration, arguing that he had been consecrated by a lapsi, and that, therefore, his consecration was invalid. Thus two competing churches arose, each maintaining legitimacy.
Constantine saw division in the church as a symbol that his empire would also suffer division, and he rushed to stop the heretics. He summoned bishops to the council of Arles, and in 314 a.d. they decided in favor of the moderates led by Caecilian. Later in the 5th century, Augustine of Hippo would argue that anyone might be a priest and that the sacraments would be efficacious even if administered by lapsi or traditores, for sacraments are holy by the power and grace of God, not by the power of the priest or bishop. Constantine's role in this heresy demonstrated that the emperor could and would play a role in politics, and that church and state were not distinct.
In 318 a.d. a more serious heresy arose, the Arian heresy. Arius was a bishop in Alexandria who focused on God's unique nature. If God was unique, how could he create a creature like him, and if the son was really a son, then surely the father must have come before? Arius concluded that Christ was not fully divine, that he was a creature, and that "there must have been a time in which he did not exist." Such conclusion destroyed Christian redemption theology, for if Christ were not truly divine, and was merely another creature himself, then he could not have ransomed man from sin. Constantine summoned the first ecumenical council to Nicaea in 325 a.d.. He presided over the council and proposed the key phrase of the creed "homoousios", meaning that Christ is the same substance as God the father, and thus, fully divine.
His role in summoning these councils, presiding over the Council of Nicaea and suggesting the key phrase shows that Constantine was not only head of the state, but also head of the church. From this time forward, there would be very little separation between church and state. The emperor was thought of as the thirteenth apostle, who had a legitimate role in theological disputes. This form of government is called Caesaropapism, meaning that the Caesar was the pope. Later in the fourth century, Theodosius would issue the Theodosian Code (380 a.d.), making Christianity the only tolerated religion (cunctos populos) and forbidding heresy (nullos hereticos). Throughout the middle Ages, the king played a role in religion and the church dominated politics. Emperors were effectively deposed by the pope, and men became kings with the pope's consent.
Constantine's reign thus inaugurated the Age of Faith, in which religion dominated every aspect of life. Constantine himself seemed not to grasp completely the revolutionary character of his conversion. He continued to display the symbols of the sun cult on coins minted during his reign and was not baptized until his death bed. These facts have suggested to some historians that his conversion was more a tool for political power than a legitimate faith experience; nevertheless, his intrusion into church affairs changed the nature of politics for hundreds of years to come and created the foundation for the Age of Faith.

This is a good essay because:
1. Specific events (Battle of Milvian Bridge and Edict of Milan) are thoroughly described (see outline) and they are listed with their relevant dates.
2. Constantine's conversion is described in a very detailed manner.
3. The Heresies are fully described.
4. Constantine's role in the resolution of these heresies and the significance of his actions for later history is clearly described.
5. Specific examples (Theodosian Code) of his impact on later church/state relations are given.